Since the start of the 21st century, the United States and other Western military powers have prioritized the “high frontier” of outer space, accelerating the militarization and weaponization of space technologies to enhance their national security interests and secure a lasting military edge. Starlink is the latest and most quintessential example of how the United States is militarizing space technology. Its development is closely linked with that of the U.S. Space Force and epitomizes the transformation of the United States’ space security strategy and its ‘Endless Frontier’ strategy. Starlink stands out from traditional military space technologies. It’s the largest commercial low Earth orbit satellite constellation in the world. Starlink fully utilizes emerging technologies such as cloud computing, big data, and artificial intelligence, giving it significant advantages, including high-capacity communication, low latency, and optical imaging capabilities. This makes it especially effective in fields such as intelligence, reconnaissance, surveillance, and secure communication transmission. At the same time, Starlink may pose multi-layered and complex challenges to international security in aspects such as reconnaissance and early warning, missile interception, cyberspace sovereignty, orbital spectrum resource utilization, and outer space exploration. More specifically, the rise of Starlink raises a few important questions: How will the U.S. military’s use of Starlink’s intelligence functions enhance its information support capabilities? What kind of challenges does Starlink pose to global space intelligence and information security, and how will other space-faring nations respond to these challenges? Answering these questions is crucial to ensure the future military security of outer space and the continuous, sustainable development of human space exploration.

1 Review of Related Scholarship

Currently, academics both domestically and internationally are studying Starlink from various perspectives such as industrial economics, space politics, military strategy, technological competition, and overall security. The research findings span across macro, meso, and micro levels. Before the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the academic community primarily viewed Starlink as an internet service project developed by an American space exploration technology company. They observed the development of the Starlink satellite constellation from a civilian technology perspective and analyzed its impact on the internet industry and commercial space exploration. Ever since the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, when Elon Musk started providing the Ukrainian military with Starlink handsets and wartime network services, the focus of research on Starlink has shifted. Scholars around the world have become increasingly more interested in the militarization of Starlink, especially its application in the military intelligence domain. Here is an overview of the research being conducted on Starlink:

Researchers have studied the tactical and operational aspects of Starlink’s militarization, with a particular focus on its impact on the Russia-Ukraine conflict. For example, Jonathan Caverly’s research has revealed that the Ukrainian forces are highly dependent on Starlink for network transmission and satellite surveillance data. ¹ Vivienne Walt has characterized Ukraine as a “testing ground” for Starlink satellite internet services. She has examined how portable Starlink handsets have provided information support during the Russia-Ukraine conflict.² Scholars have also focused on military strategy. Their research has delved into the long-term impact of the militarization of Starlink on the deployment of strategic forces among great powers, military strategic stability, and overall space militarization. For instance, Yu Runze and Jiang Tianjiao have analyzed how Starlink enhances space militarization and weaponization. Their findings suggest that the large-scale deployment of Starlink could exacerbate the risks of misjudgment and conflict escalation among nuclear powers.³ Zhang Huang and Du Yanyun have discussed the challenges that the U.S.-driven militarization of Starlink poses to global strategic stability and the balance of nuclear strategic forces.⁴

There are two main dimensions through which to measure the impact of Starlink’s militarization on global intelligence and information security. First is the narrow perspective of military security. Zhang Ruijian and others have analyzed the potential threats of cyberattacks on communication security, proposing the construction of a ‘satellite internet network security assurance system’ as a strategic response.⁵ Starting from the comprehensive view of national security and the strategic level of international security, scholars focus on the collateral risks linked to the intelligence and information security threats posed by Starlink. Yu Nanping and Yan Jiajie have analyzed how the United States seeks to leverage Starlink to dominate intelligence and information, potentially challenging global data production chains, national data sovereignty, international spectrum resource allocation, and international norms in space exploration, just to name a few.⁶

While the militarization of Starlink and its associated intelligence security risks have become a main topic of discussion among scholars, there are still two main shortcomings in the research: First, contemporary research studies often treat the Russo-Ukrainian conflict as the starting point for the militarization of Starlink. This approach overlooks the fact that military applications were part of Starlink from its inception and fails to illustrate the gradual increase in collaboration between Starlink and the U.S. military. Second, current academic studies on the information security risks caused by Starlink are often conducted under broader scopes such as military security, national security, or international security. There is a lack of focused, systematic research on security risks in the military intelligence domain, and thus, insufficient analysis on targeted, actionable countermeasures. This article addresses these two shortcomings by fully elaborating on the historical context of the militarization of Starlink and analyzing its impact on U.S. military intelligence. It reveals the potential risks that the militarization of Starlink poses to global space intelligence security and attempts to propose countermeasures from technological, legal, and institutional perspectives.

2 The Starlink Project and its Militarization

The militarization of Starlink has been a gradual process. Since the launch of the first batch of satellites in 2019, the process has deepened with joint efforts from SpaceX and the U.S. military. Initially led by the military and supported through project funding, Starlink was developed to provide intelligence services for the military. As the cooperation progressed, SpaceX began participating in U.S. military exercises and weapons testing, increasingly showing a trend toward weaponization. After the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, SpaceX began to proactively seek deeper cooperation with the U.S. military, which led to its continual development of military-grade Starlink satellites and handheld devices for combat use.

2.1 Initial Phase of the Starlink Project

The Starlink project, developed by the private American aerospace company SpaceX, aimed to provide low-cost internet access and global mobile phone services. SpaceX first unveiled its satellite internet research proposal in January 2015. The company disclosed that it had submitted documents to international regulatory bodies which detailed its initial plan to place about 4,000 small satellites in low Earth orbit. ⁷ According to Spaceflight Now, each Starlink satellite weighs approximately 573 pounds (260 kilograms) and is designed to have a lifespan of about five years. SpaceX has been gradually expanding the scale of satellite launches under the Starlink program. During a speech in Seattle, the company’s CEO, Elon Musk, revealed details about the project, stating, “In the long run, we plan to rebuild the internet in space.”⁸

In March 2017 and November 2018, SpaceX received permission from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to deploy 12,000 Starlink satellites in low Earth orbit.⁹ On May 23, 2019, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched the first batch of 60 Starlink satellites, which successfully reached an operational altitude of 340 miles (550 kilometers).¹⁰ Since then, the Starlink program has continued to progress steadily. By November 2022, SpaceX had deployed a total of 3,271 Starlink satellites, 3,236 of which were functioning normally in orbit.¹¹ As of June 2022, Starlink had provided internet access services to over 500,000 users. To realize its vision of capturing a $1 trillion global internet service market, SpaceX submitted documents to international regulatory authorities detailing its plan to add 30,000 satellites to the 12,000 that were originally approved, which would build a massive constellation of 42,000 satellites in low Earth orbit.¹²

2.2 The Militarization of Starlink

The Starlink project has long attracted significant attention from the U.S. military due to its immense value in battlefield communication, intelligence reconnaissance, and missile warning systems. SpaceX has maintained close cooperative relationships with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and various other military branches.

The DoD feels that SpaceX’s efficient custom spacecraft design and production capabilities align well with their demands for agility, innovation, and affordability in space system development and procurement. In October 2020, SpaceX was awarded a $149 million contract by the Space Development Agency (SDA), a branch of the U.S. Department of Defense, to develop and launch four Overhead Persistent Infrared (OPIR) satellites, thereby constructing the ‘tracking layer’ satellite constellation.¹³ The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is attempting to build on this existing research by using low Earth orbit satellites to create an automated mission management system called ‘Blackjack,’ which integrates navigation, communication, and rapid information distribution capabilities. This will help enhance reconnaissance technology and strengthen cross-domain long-range precision strike capabilities. With its strong surveillance functionalities, Starlink has become an important platform for the Blackjack system.¹⁴

In March 2019, SpaceX signed a $28 million contract with the U.S. Air Force to test the encrypted internet services of the Starlink satellites, with a requirement to conduct military service demonstrations and validations within three years. In November of the same year, the U.S. Air Force conducted early low-orbit technology validation tests that included direct connectivity between the Starlink satellites and the antenna arrays of U.S. Air Force fighter jets. The aim was to use the Starlink satellite constellation to create globally resilient, high-bandwidth, and low-latency communication facilities to support various U.S. Air Force combat operations and exercises.¹⁵ In September 2020, Starlink was not only connected to combat systems during a large-scale live-fire exercise by the U.S. Air Force but also provided intelligence services to AC-130, F-35, and F-22 aircraft.¹⁶ In March 2021, SpaceX provided information support for a “ground-to-air combat scenario” experiment at Edwards Air Force Base.¹⁷

In May 2020, the U.S. Army signed a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with SpaceX to connect Starlink satellites to the Army’s communication network and evaluate its network service performance. The evaluation concluded that Starlink offers “jam-resistant, high-precision capabilities and a potential alternative to GPS technology.” ¹⁸ Starlink has been deeply involved in various U.S. Army combat training missions. During the “Project Convergence-2021” live-fire exercise, the Army used Starlink satellites for target detection, fire control, and information transmission. Data was transmitted to the “Titan” ground station via the “Gray Eagle” UAV for intelligent decision-making, and the combat system then executed the strike, completing the entire process in just 20 seconds.¹⁹

In October 2020, SpaceX was awarded a $29.6 million contract under the National Security Space Launch Phase 2 agreement, allowing the U.S. Space Force to monitor and study data from the company’s commercial and civil space missions.²⁰ Additionally, the U.S. Space Force uses the Falcon 9 rocket to launch military GPS satellites, and Space Force bases have also become important launch sites for Starlink satellites. In May 2022, at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, the Space Force launched a Falcon-07 rocket carrying Starlink satellites. This marked the fourth time Vandenberg had participated in the deployment of the Starlink satellite network.²¹ In September 2023, the Space Force launched more Starlink satellites from Cape Canaveral, Florida.²² Meanwhile, the U.S. Space Force is deploying a new constellation of defense satellites for missile tracking, data transmission, and space-to-ground communication. It plans to purchase customized satellites from private companies. As part of this plan, it has signed a new procurement contract with SpaceX to develop custom satellites equipped with wide-field sensors for missile tracking and early warning.²³

2.3 Starlink’s Operational Applications

The militarization of Starlink has not merely been confined to exercises and weapon tests. In the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Starlink has become a crucial technological means for the Ukrainian military to achieve battlefield communication, intelligence reconnaissance, and even precision target strikes. This has pushed Starlink into its next phase: real-world combat application. Starlink’s satellite internet can cover the entire territory of Ukraine and provide network access services through ground stations in neighboring countries such as Lithuania, Poland, and Turkey, ensuring stable wartime communications for the Ukrainian forces. Additionally, Starlink supports the Ukrainian military’s precision strike operations. The Ukrainian forces connect UAVs with ground forces through Starlink, significantly enhancing the effectiveness of strikes against important Russian military targets and personnel. As shown in Table 2, the Ukrainian military used reconnaissance UAVs connected to Starlink terminals to send target information to artillery systems.²⁴ Another example is the strike on the Russian Navy’s Moskva cruiser, where, with target support provided by NATO through Starlink, the precise location of the Moskva was identified and targeted. Starlink has been seamlessly integrated into the Ukrainian military’s command system through the following intelligence chain: NATO reconnaissance and surveillance platforms — Ukrainian military command and control centers — Starlink network — action and execution. It has become a key tool in executing long-range, precision decapitation strikes.

SpaceX benefitted greatly from Starlink’s outstanding performance on the Russia-Ukraine battlefield. In December 2022, the company officially launched the military satellite project ‘StarShield,’ which will primarily serve the U.S. government, including the Department of Defense and various intelligence agencies. There are currently three main components to the StarShield project: 1) remote imaging sensors, 2) low-orbit real-time communication technologies for rapid data transmission, 3) hosted payloads. The upgraded StarShield is larger in size and capable of carrying various functional payloads focused on the military sector. SpaceX has positioned StarShield at the core of its end-to-end product offerings for national security and data confidentiality, building on the data encryption already used by the Starlink system. StarShield includes additional high-assurance encryption features to host military payloads, ensuring the secure handling and transmission of classified data.²⁵ On the surface, Starlink is designed for commercial use, and StarShield for military purposes. In reality, the inter-satellite laser communication links enable StarShield and Starlink to connect to and network with each other, becoming ‘partner satellites.’ From a military perspective, mixed civil-military deployment significantly reduces development costs while achieving effective concealment and deception.

3 Analysis of the Impact of Starlink’s Militarization on U.S. Military Intelligence Support Capabilities

As a leader in the development of space intelligence resources, the United States has utilized military reconnaissance satellites to gather intelligence since the 1980s. Satellites play a significant role in battlefield intelligence reconnaissance, data support, etc. With the military revolution, led by emerging technologies such as big data, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence, quickly approaching, the U.S. military urgently needs to develop new satellite systems that are resistant to interference and support all-weather, all-terrain intelligence services. As a massive constellation that integrates network communication, imaging, and remote monitoring services, Starlink inherently excels in precise navigation and positioning, seamless target surveillance, and rapid data transmission. This will help the U.S. military build a unidirectionally transparent battlefield environment and enhance its data transmission, reconnaissance, and strategic intelligence support capabilities.

3.1 Impact on Intelligence Transmission Capabilities

Ensuring the stability of battlefield intelligence transmission. As artificial intelligence becomes an important technological means in modern warfare, internet access has emerged as a bottleneck in the development of military intelligence. The U.S. Special Operations Command aims to develop military artificial intelligence systems that can access the internet anytime and anywhere but faces many uncertainties and technological challenges. Due to its low cost, small size, and ease of setup, Starlink can ensure that soldiers can create internet hotspots anytime and anywhere. Starlink’s vast number of satellites give it global coverage. During the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Starlink handsets provided secure and stable communications on the battlefield. For example, amidst the encirclement of the Azovstal steel plant by Russian forces, Ukrainian forces used Starlink to send out distress signals, photos, and videos to the outside world.²⁶

Additionally, Starlink can also ensure the stable transmission of intelligence information in dynamic environments and harsh conditions. Starlink terminals are convenient, flexible, easy to install, and highly resistant to interference, capable of providing stable intelligence transmission in mobile combat environments. On the other hand, the Starlink network has a broader range of applications in specialized vehicles, such as nuclear submarine communications and remote communications. Nuclear submarines typically operate covertly and are highly mobile, and the intelligence capabilities of the long-wave communications currently used are limited. Starlink offers stronger wireless transmission signals and wider network coverage than traditional fiber optic or ground wireless broadband networks. This allows for the secure transmission of vast quantities of data and supports remote control operations.²⁷

Enhancing the speed of information transmission to gain intelligence superiority. Starlink is faster than traditional methods of communication, and its low latency helps the U.S. military control the information on the battlefield. Technologically, Starlink satellites have surpassed the mobile connection models of land-based stations and significantly outpace traditional fiber optics. In terms of deployment, Starlink satellites, located in low Earth orbit, have a distance advantage over traditional communication satellites, allowing them to keep communication latency between 15-25 milliseconds. In 2019, as part of its strategic development plan, the U.S. Air Force utilized Starlink’s superior transmission capabilities to conduct tests of its military communications. According to U.S. media reports, when the U.S. Air Force C-12 aircraft tested Starlink, it achieved a network communication speed of about 610 Mbit/s, which is two orders of magnitude higher than the current minimum communication speed of 5 Mbit/s provided by military satellites. This is also an order of magnitude improvement over the 5~50 Mbit/s Inmarsat communication speeds typically used by most airborne communications systems.²⁸

Supporting the development of data transmission capabilities for new types of combat styles. In recent years, the U.S. military has proposed future warfare concepts such as ‘Mosaic Warfare’ and ‘Decision-Centric Warfare,’ which place higher demands on intelligence information transmission capabilities. Let’s take mosaic warfare as an example. The Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments released a research report in February 2020 titled “Mosaic Warfare: Employing AI and Autonomous Systems for Decision-Centric Warfare.” To better respond to the operational challenges posed by major power competition, the Department of Defense should adopt operational concepts that achieve success through faster, better decision-making rather than through attrition.²⁹ Mosaic Warfare emphasizes breaking down existing sensors, command and control systems, and weapon systems into modular pieces, which are distributed across various manned and/or unmanned platforms in different operational domains. Simultaneously, mosaic warfare is unrestricted by specific operational scenarios. This flexibility allows commanders to choose platforms that meet their combat requirements and objectives, rapidly building customized combat systems for optimal effectiveness. These modular pieces are independent of each other and thus require high-speed and high-capacity network communication support. Moreover, mosaic warfare also demands stable information transmission capabilities, i.e. if one component or node of a network is attacked, information can still be shared and transmitted through other nodes. Starlink’s vast, low-orbit constellation provides high-capacity network communications at low cost in support of these new combat concepts. Furthermore, Starlink’s high distributiveness, flexibility, and rapid reconfigurability make it highly resilient. Even if some nodes are damaged, it will not affect the overall efficacy of the combat system.³⁰

3.2 Impact on Intelligence Reconnaissance Capabilities

Starlink has further enhanced the U.S. military’s all-weather, all-terrain target monitoring capabilities. Reconnaissance satellites have always played a crucial role in the U.S. military’s intelligence surveillance system. In the 1960s, the first U.S. reconnaissance satellite, the KH-1 Corona, captured information about Soviet intercontinental missile launch sites. During the Iraq War, the KH-12 optical imaging satellite and ‘Lacrosse’ radar reconnaissance satellites provided a wealth of valuable intelligence for U.S. military operations. ³¹ Single satellites have limited functions and struggle with continuous monitoring. Starlink, on the other hand, offers extensive coverage and strong anti-interference capabilities, which enhances all-weather situational awareness. Currently, land-based communication stations cover most terrestrial areas but do not extend to the oceans, which make up 70% of the Earth’s surface, or to remote, uninhabited areas like the polar ice caps. Once Starlink’s space-based internet network is completed, its 42,000 satellites equipped with high-revisit-rate optical observation payloads will provide true global coverage and 24-hour all-weather monitoring. Moreover, by integrating current cutting-edge technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, and hypersonic technology, Starlink will further optimize the U.S. military’s overall reconnaissance—identification—strike chain.

Secondly, Starlink can provide a more resilient space-based intelligence early warning system. Early warning satellite systems play a crucial role in the U.S. military’s intelligence network. For example, during the Gulf War, the “Defense Support Program” (DSP) was able to predict the trajectory and landing sites of Iraqi Scud missiles, allowing the U.S. “Patriot” missile defense system to intercept them.³² In January 2020, the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS), operated by the U.S. Space Force, successfully predicted 16 ballistic missiles launched by Iran towards U.S. bases in Iraq, thereby avoiding significant casualties.³³ However, both DSP and SBIRS have the disadvantages of being costly and vulnerable to attacks. General John E. Hyten, former commander of U.S. Strategic Command, pointed out that one way to make ballistic missile early warning systems more resilient is to deploy a network of smaller, cheaper satellites that can be more easily replaced if attacked.³⁴ To this end, the U.S. military has already collaborated on the Starlink project, and SpaceX has signed a contract with the Space Development Agency specifically for building satellites for missile warning and tracking. The Starlink program already resembles a nascent, space-based internet. As more and more satellites are launched, localized strikes will be less and less likely to affect the network’s overall early warning capabilities, and the system can be rapidly ‘re-netted’ at relatively low-cost.

Furthermore, Starlink has strengthened the United States’ ability to conduct dynamic monitoring of new weapons such as hypersonics. Currently, military powers, led by Russia, are accelerating the development and application of hypersonic weapons, posing new national security challenges for the United States. Due to their high speed and exceptional maneuverability, monitoring and tracking hypersonic weapons has become a pressing concern. Presently, the United States primarily utilizes space-based sensors for extensive monitoring, but existing space-based intelligence systems face challenges such as overly high orbits, limited precision, and insufficient numbers to provide comprehensive coverage. Consequently, the United States urgently needs to develop new space-based early warning detection and tracking sensors. Therefore, the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) has announced the development of the next-gen, space-based Hypersonic and Ballistic Tracking Space Sensor (HBTSS) to counter hypersonic missile threats.³⁵ Utilizing the Starlink low Earth orbit mega-constellation could allow for real-time monitoring and tracking of hypersonic and other ballistic missiles, providing an intelligence advantage. The HBTSS monitoring system’s development will be further accelerated after it is seamlessly integrated with the massive Starlink constellation. With broad coverage and low latency, it will be better able to monitor hypersonic weapons.

3.3 Impact on Strategic Intelligence Support Capabilities

From a military perspective, Starlink provides crucial strategic intelligence support for missile warnings, cyberspace operations, and understanding public perception.

The militarization of Starlink helps enhance the U.S. military’s strategic deterrence capabilities centered around nuclear strike forces. Historically, the development of U.S. space-based intelligence support has been closely linked to the growth of its strategic nuclear forces. During the Cold War, space deterrence was a component of nuclear deterrence. He Qisong notes, ‘At this time, space deterrence involved using space-based surveillance to discern the strategic intentions and military actions of opponents early on, issuing warnings or conducting precise strikes to deter various threats.”³⁶ During this period, the United States positioned its space deterrence forces in a way that allowed them to utilize their informational support capabilities to optimize the effectiveness of strategic nuclear deterrence. American nuclear safety experts have long viewed Russia’s land-based mobile strategic nuclear missiles as a significant counterbalance against the U.S. military’s preemptive strike strategy. The superior mobility of land-based missile launcher vehicles makes them difficult to successfully locate and neutralize. Therefore, they have become an important tool for adversaries of the United States that seek nuclear survivability.³⁷ The United States’ space-based strategic early warning system, built on Starlink, is capable of monitoring any point on the globe with sub-meter resolution once every hour. It can be deployed as an all-weather monitoring and early warning system against strategic adversaries’ land-based mobile nuclear missile launchers.³⁸ Starlink’s technological advantages in the field of strategic intelligence support will further reduce the survivability of land-based strategic forces of countries like Russia, disrupt the nuclear strategic stability of “mutual assured survival,” and motivate the United States to adopt preemptive strategic strike approaches in crisis situations. Chuba, and many others, believe that “From the perspective of those countries that are considered potential targets, ‘Starlink,’ despite its objective imperfections and vulnerabilities, could destabilize strategic stability. Even if there’s a public declaration that Starlink will be dedicated to civilian purposes, or if Starlink is not openly used to support a first strike, it could rapidly be converted to fulfill that purpose as the situation changes.³⁹

Starlink may also become a strategic tool by which countries launch wars against potential adversaries. On the Russia-Ukraine battlefield, Ukraine successfully used Starlink to launch cognitive and psychological warfare against Russia, seeking an overall strategic advantage. Ukrainian intelligence agencies use Starlink satellite internet to influence public opinion, boosting military morale, and garnering support from the international media. For example, the Ukrainian security service intercepted conversations of Russian soldiers and selectively released them on satellite internet, including statements such as “50% of soldiers have frostbite; there is a severe lack of supplies; only 20% of Russian military personnel have winter uniforms, and there are few tents,” ⁴⁰ to show the world the limited capabilities of Russia and the war-weariness of its soldiers, thereby boosting confidence in a Ukrainian victory. High-level officials such as the President of Ukraine and the Minister of Digital Transformation also used Starlink to give speeches to other countries and accept interviews from foreign media, inciting social media sanctions against Russia, i.e. YouTube blocking Russian state media and prohibiting Russian advertisers, Apple stopping product sales to Russia and halting payments in Russia, etc. These actions led countries that were originally neutral to change their stance, further worsening the situation for Russia. The acquisition of this intelligence and the subsequent influence of public opinion were supported by the “Starlink” satellites and encouraged by the U.S. government. Secondly, Starlink assists the Ukrainian public in carrying out a people’s war in the information intelligence domain. The Starlink network has become an important channel for the Ukrainian military and civilians to transmit intelligence. The Ukrainian government encourages the public to use smartphones to transmit any intelligence information they might find, such as Russian military positions, equipment photos, and training videos. The Ukrainians claim that in just over two months since the outbreak of the conflict, approximately 267,000 Ukrainian civilians submitted data via mobile platforms, with an average of 2000 reports about Russian positions each day.⁴¹ Ukraine’s Ministry of Digital Transformation analyzes and processes this data, transforming it into more accurate and precise intelligence for their command center. The potential technical linkage might be: mobile phone—Starlink network—intelligence analysis platform—NATO or Ukrainian military intelligence departments—Starlink network—frontlines of the battlefield. Zan Tao, an associate professor at Peking University, noted that in past wars, when a stalemate occurred, things that were supposed to be on the periphery suddenly became important components that could even influence the war itself.⁴² Therefore, when Starlink satellites are used in combination with advanced technologies like big data, algorithms, and traffic analysis, and when they incorporate the viewpoints and experiences of civilians and the general public, they become deadly weapons that can turn the tide of battle.

4 The Impact of the Militarization of Starlink on Space Intelligence and Information Security

As the largest low Earth orbit satellite internet constellation in the world, Starlink has already demonstrated significant military potential in intelligence transmission, reconnaissance, and support with less than 10% of its planned satellites launched. It is expected that, as the number of satellites in orbit increases and cooperation with the U.S. military deepens, Starlink will inevitably lead to increased competition for space intelligence resources, the deterioration of the space intelligence security environment, and the further intensification of the United States’ hegemony in space.

4.1 Intensified Competition for Space Intelligence Resources

Outer space has always been a critical arena for intelligence competition among major powers, with satellite constellations serving as crucial strategic platforms. In recent years, these constellations have become key areas of competition among space-faring nations. The vast number of satellites in the Starlink program will further exacerbate competition for space intelligence resources. On one hand, Starlink’s superior intelligence support capabilities might lead other space-faring nations to follow the United States and build their own large-scale satellite constellations. In recent years, companies and organizations such as Russia’s Yaliny, the UK’s OneWeb, Germany’s KLEO Connect, South Korea’s Samsung, India’s Astrome, Canada’s AAC Clyde and Telesat, and China Satellite Network Group have all launched large internet constellation deployment plans, ⁴³ indicating fierce competition for space intelligence resources. On the other hand, this competition will inevitably lead to increasingly severe cyberattacks targeting satellite internet networks. Military reconnaissance satellite data transmission terminals have long been major targets for international cyberattacks. As the militarization of Starlink transforms satellite internet into a vital platform for military intelligence reconnaissance and transmission, cyberattacks and intelligence theft targeting satellites will also increase. In August 2022, a Belgian hacker publicly demonstrated a self-developed Starlink hacking chip at the “Black Hat” international data security conference This chip can bypass satellite network security authentication systems and illegally access the underlying Starlink system, opening the door to intelligence theft. ⁴⁴ As major space-faring nations develop internet constellation projects, cyberattacks targeting satellites will become a critical battleground in space intelligence warfare.

4.2 Challenges to the Regulatory Framework for Space Intelligence Resource Development and Utilization

The increasingly fierce competition among major space-faring nations over space intelligence resources has inevitably challenged a series of legal regulations on the development and utilization of space resources promulgated at the international and national levels. On the international level, the militarization of Starlink disrupts the existing security order that governs the development and utilization of space intelligence resources. The United States’ active promotion of Starlink’s militarization exceeds the international community’s scope for the peaceful use of space and violates a series of international space laws and regulations. For instance, Article IV of the United Nations’ Outer Space Treaty prohibits the establishment of military bases, installations, and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons, and the conduct of military maneuvers on celestial bodies.⁴⁵ The U.S. military’s repeated use of Starlink satellites for military intelligence transmission tests and its efforts to develop the StarShield program clearly violate this principle. It may also trigger a new space intelligence arms race among military powers, negatively impacting space security. National sovereignty extends into cyberspace, making cybersecurity an important component of national security.⁴⁶ The Starlink network’s wide coverage and support of cross-border communication makes it even more difficult to regulate networks and threatens the cybersecurity and information sovereignty of other countries. According to the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) Radio Regulations, except for satellite broadcasting services, no country can request that its satellite network not cover the territory of other countries,⁴⁷ meaning that Starlink satellites can provide network services within the territories of countries and regions they cover without being subject to local regulation. There are many regulatory gaps with regards to cross-border data transmission and the monitoring of global data and information. Therefore, assuming Starlink has the ability to intercept, tamper with, or steal network data for intelligence purposes, it will inevitably be used to violate other countries’ information sovereignty and pose other national security issues. Finally, on the individual user level, Starlink can connect to ground-based smart devices and quickly perform big data analysis to obtain important data. This makes users “transparent” and thus threatens the security of their personal data. The most typical case occurred during the Russia-Ukraine conflict, where the Ukrainians encouraged civilians to use the Starlink internet to collect intelligence and upload it through their personal mobile smart devices. However, this process still faces security issues such as the interception of user data and data leaks caused by cyberattacks.

4.3 Strengthening U.S. Hegemony in the Space Intelligence Domain

The space domain is currently the high ground for acquiring intelligence. It is a crucial means by which the United States monitors other countries’ space activities, assesses threats, and safeguards its space assets and space hegemony.⁴⁸ During the Cold War, military space assets provided vital intelligence support for major powers’ strategic deterrence capabilities. In the 1980s, the Reagan administration proposed the “Star Wars” program, and in the 1990s, U.S. military satellites played a significant role in the Gulf War and the Kosovo War. Satellites thus became key intelligence support and information warfare assets integrated with the U.S. military’s nuclear and conventional forces. However, the inherent vulnerability of space assets has limited their strategic intelligence support capabilities. As He Qisong points out, “Space assets are inherently vulnerable to attacks, creating a fundamental dilemma for United States space deterrence due to their dependency and fragility.”⁴⁹ The new generation of military space equipment, represented by Starlink, can to some extent mitigate the vulnerabilities of traditional military space assets due to its redundancy in scale. This further solidifies the United States’ leading position in (outer space) strategic information transmission. General John E. Hyten, former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has noted that large, sophisticated military satellites are ideal targets for enemies due to their fragility. In contrast, large constellations are better able to withstand enemy attacks. Even if some of the satellites are destroyed, the constellation will continue to function.⁵⁰ Starlink is continually evolving into an integrated space-based combat platform with offensive and defensive capabilities, nuclear and conventional functions, and other diverse features. In December 2022, SpaceX launched the StarShield military satellite constellation project, pioneering the use of large satellite constellations for warfare. Some international security scholars believe that large constellations like Starlink can provide robust intelligence support to help protect space assets, prevent space crises, and ensure a competitive advantage in outer space. They believe it will become a powerful tool by which the United States further strengthens its space hegemony.⁵¹

5 Space Intelligence Security Governance in the Starlink Era

The militarization of Starlink, heavily promoted by the United States, has triggered a series of global intelligence and information security issues. The United Nations and the international community are working on responses through security governance. However, since these issues lie at the technological frontier, these efforts are still in the exploratory stage. China must closely monitor and actively respond to the intelligence and information security threats posed by the militarization of Starlink, while also developing its own domestic satellite constellation projects. The goal should be to gain a competitive edge in the utilization of low Earth intelligence and information resources by adopting comprehensive measures in technical means, legal regulations, and institutional mechanisms to synchronize the growth of governance models and capacity.

Technical Means: China’s first priority should be to enhance satellite internet network security to counter the threat of cyberattacks on intelligence transmission. This involves closely monitoring global advancements in satellite internet network security protection technologies, taking into account the characteristics of the network environment, such as its large scale, exposed connections, complex structure, transparent nodes, and dynamic changes in network topology. Research should focus on developing a robust, multi-layered, and upgradable security system with in-depth defense capabilities for uncontrolled environments. Second, in light of the risk of personal data theft during the use of satellite internet networks, efforts should be focused on strengthening user identity management and data security systems. This includes using technologies such as digital signatures, public key cryptography, digital identity immunity, and advanced identity threat detection to achieve “end-to-end” user data and identity protection. Third, the potential threats to national intelligence information security raised by Starlink’s militarization make it necessary to explore countermeasures and deterrence to ensure that core data related to national strategic security and vital interests is protected.

Legal Regulations: Starlink’s militarization poses practical challenges to the development and utilization of space intelligence resources. In response, major space-faring nations should build consensus and actively formulate governance norms, principles, standards, and policies that reflect the common security interests and concerns of all countries. This includes the peaceful use of information, the sharing of spectrum and orbit resources, and the construction, deployment, and use of intelligence infrastructure. After many years of hard work, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) eventually developed and introduced the “Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities” (hereinafter referred to as the “Sustainability Guidelines”.)⁵² However, these guidelines are voluntary, not legally binding. Therefore, countries and relevant entities should actively promote the transformation of the “Sustainability Guidelines” from “soft law” to “hard law.” The peaceful use of space intelligence and information resources must be inserted into the “Sustainability Guidelines.” Specifically, the guidelines must focus on operational legal norms, such as the registration of small, low-orbit spacecraft, the disclosure of military intelligence functions, and responses to satellite network data theft.

To address the risk of the United States using the militarization of Starlink to strengthen its space intelligence hegemony, it is necessary to build flexible institutional systems and mechanisms to achieve parity and leadership in core technological fields. First, China should fully leverage the institutional advantage of socialist states, the ability to conduct major undertakings, by coordinating the planning and management of satellite constellation projects. This involves comprehensively utilizing military and civilian resources to conduct collaborative innovation in key satellite internet data security technologies. The strategic goals should be to build a world-class low Earth orbit satellite constellation, foster close technical cooperation between low Earth orbit small satellite operators and upstream and downstream enterprises, and promote the rapid development of the satellite internet network production chain and corresponding security technologies. Second, China must fully absorb mature commercial technologies and R&D capabilities on a global scale. Currently, cutting-edge technological innovations and engineering practices in the large-scale satellite constellation field are largely driven by private, multinational enterprises such as OneWeb, KLEO Connect, AAC Clyde, and Samsung. Therefore, it is necessary to engage in diverse forms of cooperation with leading global private enterprises, think tanks, universities, and space security research institutions. By uniting the efforts of peace-loving scientists and engineering talents worldwide, we can collectively counter the United States’ space intelligence hegemony.