中国的“伙伴”关系有哪些?
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What “Partnerships” Does China Have?

中国的“伙伴”关系有哪些?

Xiang Haoyu, a research fellow at a prominent Chinese think tank, presents a typology of China’s diplomatic partnerships – which range from “strategic” partnerships (the most common type, held with at least 80 countries) to “all-weather” or “permanent” partnerships, describing very close ties with countries such as Pakistan, Venezuela, and Belarus. Xiang contrasts Beijing’s pursuit of partnerships to the “zero-sum” alliance network of the West, and suggests partnerships are a powerful diplomatic tool for Beijing that can be flexibly adapted to the counterpart country’s conditions and needs.


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Question: Yu Yan, Secretary of the Party Committee of Zhaojia Town, Zhuji City, Zhejiang Province

提问:俞浙江省诸暨市赵家镇党委书记 

In the news, we often hear that China has established partnerships with countries with which it has diplomatic relations. I would like to ask, what partnerships does China have? What is the meaning of each one?

在新闻中,我们常听到中国与建交国家建立了伙伴关系。请问,中国的伙伴关系有哪些?每一种都是什么含义 

Explanation: Xiang Haoyu, Distinguished Research Fellow, Asia-Pacific Institute, China Institute of International Studies

解读:项昊宇 中国国际问题研究院亚太研究所特聘研究员 

In recent years, the word “partner” has appeared frequently in Chinese diplomacy. The report to the 20th Party Congress pointed out that China adheres to the development of friendly cooperation with other countries on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, promotes the building of a new type of international relations, deepens and expands global partnerships on the basis of equality, openness, and cooperation, and is committed to expanding the points of convergence of interests with other countries. Since the 18th Party Congress, the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core has actively built a partnership network that spans the globe. This has become an important part of the theoretical and practical innovations of major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the new era.

近年来,伙伴二字高频出现在中国外交中。党的二十大报告中指出,中国坚持在和平共处五项原则基础上同各国发展友好合作,推动构建新型国际关系,深化拓展平等、开放、合作的全球伙伴关系,致力于扩大同各国利益的汇合点。党的十八大以来,以习近平同志为核心的党中央积极建设覆盖全球的伙伴关系网络,成为新时代中国特色大国外交理论和实践创新的重要组成部分 

Partners rather than alliances: China’s “partners” are all over the world

结伴不结盟,中国伙伴遍布全球 

Tracing back to its roots, the Chinese word “partner” (伙伴) was previously written as “fire companion” (火伴) meaning one who shares your fire, which originated from the military. According to the explanation in the Cihai dictionary, “fire companion” is an ancient military system. Five people made up a row, and every two rows had a fire, so 10 people would share each fire. These 10 were called fire companions. In modern times, this word generally refers to people participating in an organization or engaging in some kind of activity together. In modern international relations, a “partnership” (结伴) is an independent international cooperative relationship established between countries based on common interests that seeks to achieve common goals through joint actions.

追根溯源,伙伴一词旧称火伴,最早来源于军事概念。根据《辞海》的解释,火伴为古代兵制,五人为列,二列为火,十人共一火炊煮,同火者称为火伴,现代泛指共同参加某种组织或从事某种活动的人。在现代国际关系中,结伴是国家间基于共同利益通过共同行动,为实现共同目标而建立的独立自主的国际合作关系 

Since modern times, the idea of “alliances” based on a division between friends and foes and zero-sum strategic games has long been dominant in international relations. After the end of the Cold War, as the opposition between the Eastern and Western camps diminished and globalization and regional integration flourished, “partnership” gradually replaced the idea of “alliance” and became the mainstream relationship in international relations. Different from an “alliance” which requires the conclusion of a mandatory and binding covenant, a “partnership” is more flexible. Countries can establish different levels of partnerships based on their own national conditions and development needs. Today, the English word “partnership” is widely used in the diplomatic practice of countries around the world.

在近代以来的国际关系中,基于敌友划分、零和博弈的结盟思想曾长期占据主导地位。冷战结束后,随着东西方阵营对立趋于瓦解,全球化和区域一体化蓬勃发展,结伴逐渐取代结盟思想,成为国际关系的主流。不同于需要订立具有强制约束力盟约的结盟结伴则更为灵活,各国可以根据自身国情和发展需要,对外建立不同层次的伙伴关系。伙伴关系在英文中表述为“partnership”,被广泛运用在当今世界各国外交实践之中 

China proposed a policy of non-alignment as early as the 1950s. After the end of the Cold War, China further clarified the principle behind its diplomatic policy as “partnership and non-alignment” to adapt to changes in the international situation, and initiated the diplomatic practice of constructing “partnerships.” In 1993, China and Brazil reached a consensus on establishing a strategic partnership, and Brazil thus established a “strategic partnership” with China. In April 1996, Russia and China established a strategic partnership of coordination for the 21st century. In October 1997, China and the United States proposed to work together to establish a constructive strategic partnership for the 21st century. Driven by major power relationships, China has successively announced the establishment of partnerships with a succession of major global powers such as the European Union, France, the United Kingdom, ASEAN, and Japan since the mid-1990s. At the same time, China has insisted on planting its feet in neighboring regions and joining hands with a wide range of developing countries as a priority in the promotion of its partnership layout.

中国早在20世纪50年代就提出了不结盟政策,冷战结束后适应国际形势变化进一步明确了结伴不结盟的外交方针原则,开启了伙伴关系建设的外交实践。1993年,中国和巴西就建立战略伙伴关系达成共识,巴西由此同中国建立战略伙伴关系19964月,俄罗斯与中国建立面向21世纪的战略协作伙伴关系。199710月,中美提出共同致力于建立面向21世纪的建设性战略伙伴关系。在大国关系的带动下,20世纪90年代中期以后,中国先后与欧盟、法国、英国、东盟、日本等全球主要力量相继宣布着手建立伙伴关系,同时坚持立足周边地区,携手广大发展中国家优先推动伙伴关系布局 

Since the 18th Party Congress, under the guidance of head-of-state diplomacy, China has widely and deeply made friends, and its global partnership network has continued to expand. Almost every major diplomatic initiative of General Secretary Xi Jinping leads to the growth or upgrade of China’s foreign partnerships. Currently, among the 182 countries that have established diplomatic relations with China, nearly 100 countries have the title of “partner” in their bilateral relations, with partners covering five continents around the world. In addition, China has established various forms of partnerships with more than 10 regions and regional organizations, including the European Union, the African Union, ASEAN, and the Arab League.

党的十八大以来,在元首外交的引领下,中国广交朋友、深交朋友,全球伙伴关系网络不断扩大。习近平总书记的每一次重大外交活动,几乎都会带来中国对外伙伴关系的增加或升级。目前,在与中国建立外交关系的182个国家中,双边关系定位中带有伙伴称谓的国家近100个,遍布全球五大洲。此外,中国还同欧盟、非盟、东盟、阿盟等10多个地区和区域性组织建立了不同形式的伙伴关系 

China’s partnerships can be roughly divided into five categories:

中国伙伴关系大致可分5个类别 

China’s establishment of various types of partnerships with foreign countries is not only based on international practice, but also features Chinese characteristics. China does not have strict and explicit conditions and standards for the designation of various diplomatic relations with the title of “partnership.” This is mainly determined through consultation based on the wishes of both parties, highlighting flexibility and autonomy. Therefore, the “partnerships” established by China are wide-ranging and diverse, with more than 20 types. In addition to being labeled with first-level attributes such as “strategic,” “cooperative,” and “friendly,” they can also be further labeled with second-level attributes such as “comprehensive,” “all-round,” “all-weather,” “new type,” and “innovation.” This positions bilateral relations in a more detailed and precise manner and reflects the uniqueness of partnerships “tailor-made” for different partners. If we take an inventory of China’s partnerships, they can be roughly divided into five categories:

中国对外建立各种类型的伙伴关系,既立足于国际惯例,也彰显出中国特色。对于冠以伙伴称谓的各种外交关系定位,中国并无严格明确的条件标准,主要根据双方的意愿协商确定,突出灵活自主性。因而中国建立的伙伴关系丰富多样,已有超过20种类型,除了冠以战略”“合作”“友好等一级定语,还可进一步冠以全面”“全方位”“全天候”“新型”“创新等二级定语,从而对双边关系作出更加细致精准的定位,体现针对不同对象量身定制的独特性。盘点中国的伙伴关系,大致可以分为5个类别 

General partnerships. These partnerships include the “friendly partnership” with Jamaica and the “new-type cooperative partnership” with Finland.

一般性伙伴关系。如与牙买加的友好伙伴关系与芬兰的新型合作伙伴关系 

Partnerships that start with “comprehensive” or “all-round.” These partnerships include the “comprehensive cooperative partnerships” with the Netherlands, Croatia, and other countries, the “innovative comprehensive partnership” with Israel, the “all-round high-quality forward-looking partnership” with Singapore, and the “all-round friendly cooperative partnership” with Belgium.

冠以全面全方位的伙伴关系。如与荷兰、克罗地亚等国的全面合作伙伴关系,与以色列的创新全面伙伴关系,与新加坡的全方位高质量的前瞻性伙伴关系,与比利时的全方位友好合作伙伴关系 

General strategic partnerships. These partnerships include the “strategic cooperative partnerships” with India, South Korea, and other countries, the “strategic partnerships” with Nigeria, Canada, Ukraine, and other countries, and the “friendly strategic partnership” with Austria.

一般性战略伙伴关系。如与印度、韩国等国的战略合作伙伴关系,与尼日利亚、加拿大、乌克兰等国的战略伙伴关系,与奥地利的友好战略伙伴关系 

Strategic partnerships that start with “comprehensive,” “global” and “all-round.” These partnerships include the “comprehensive strategic partnership for a new era” with Russia, the “comprehensive strategic cooperative partnerships” with nearly 20 countries including Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, and Kenya, the “comprehensive strategic partnerships” with about 30 countries including Italy, Malaysia, Spain, and Indonesia as well as ASEAN and the European Union, the “all-round strategic partnership” with Germany, and the “global comprehensive strategic partnership” with the United Kingdom.

冠以全面”“全球”“全方位的战略伙伴关系,如与俄罗斯的新时代全面战略协作伙伴关系,与越南、泰国、柬埔寨、肯尼亚等近20国的全面战略合作伙伴关系,与意大利、马来西亚、西班牙、印尼等约30国及东盟、欧盟建立的全面战略伙伴关系,与德国的全方位战略伙伴关系,与英国的全球全面战略伙伴关系 

Strategic partnerships that start with “all-weather” and “permanent.” These partnerships include the “all-weather strategic cooperative partnerships” with Pakistan, Belarus, and Venezuela and the “permanent comprehensive strategic partnership” with Kazakhstan.

冠以全天候”“永久的战略伙伴关系,包括与巴基斯坦、白俄罗斯、委内瑞拉三国间的全天候战略合作伙伴关系,与哈萨克斯坦的永久全面战略伙伴关系 

Among the partnerships mentioned above, “strategic partnerships” are the most common in today’s international relations and are also the most numerous type among China’s partnerships. Because of its macro significance and overall orientation, “strategic” often indicates a higher level of bilateral political relations. It not only demonstrates that bilateral exchanges and cooperation in various fields are very close, but also shows that coordination and cooperation exist between the two sides in international and regional affairs. Currently, there are more than 80 bilateral partnerships described with the word “strategic” in China’s foreign relations, highlighting the breadth and depth of China’s global partnership network.

在上述伙伴关系中,战略伙伴关系在当今国际关系中最为常见,也是中国伙伴关系中数量最多的一种类型。战略因其所具有的宏观意涵和全局性指向,往往意味着双边政治关系的较高水平,不仅表明双边各领域交流合作十分密切,也显示双方在国际和地区事务中存在协调与配合。目前,中国对外关系中冠以战略字样的伙伴关系已逾80对,凸显出中国全球伙伴关系网络的广度与深度 

Taking a closer look at China’s rich and diverse positioning of “strategic partnerships,” it is not difficult to find that there are subtle differences and particularities among them. For example, “comprehensive strategic partnership” adds the word “comprehensive” to “strategic partnership,” which means that this partnership covers a wider range of fields, including politics, economics and trade, security, culture, and international and regional affairs. It shows that both parties recognize and pursue a higher level of mutual relations. For example, the strategic partnerships between China and Pakistan, Belarus, and Venezuela highlight the “all-weather” positioning of the partnerships, indicating that these bilateral relations can withstand the test of changing international situations. These are “iron” friendships based on a high degree of political mutual trust and friendly feelings. It not only means that the two sides practice extensive and in-depth cooperation in various fields, but also that they support each other in international and regional affairs and advance and retreat together.

细观中国丰富多样的战略伙伴关系定位,不难发现细微之处显差别,特殊之处有讲究。如全面战略伙伴关系战略伙伴关系多了全面二字,意味着这种伙伴关系涵盖面更加广泛,包括政治、经贸、安全、人文和国际地区事务等各个领域,显示出双方对彼此关系更高层次的认可和追求。如中国和巴基斯坦、白俄罗斯、委内瑞拉间的战略伙伴关系突出全天候定位,表明双边关系能够经受国际风云变幻考验,是以高度政治互信和友好感情为基础的一种铁杆情谊,不仅意味着双方各领域合作广泛深入,在国际地区事务中也相互支持,共同进退 

Not called a “partner,” but still a friend

不叫伙伴,也是朋友 

As a concept in international relations, “partnership” indicates the overall level of development of bilateral relations, but it is not the only criterion for distinguishing good or bad relations. Countries that have established “partnerships” also have conflicts and differences, and countries that have not established “partnerships” can still carry out extensive exchanges and cooperation.

作为国际关系中的一个概念,伙伴关系表明了双边关系发展的总体水平,但并非区别关系好坏的唯一标准。建立了伙伴关系的国家之间也存在矛盾分歧,没有建立伙伴关系的国家之间也可以开展广泛的交往合作 

China’s positioning of partnerships reflects the degree of mutual trust and cooperation. Although to some extent partnerships reflect the closeness or distance between countries, different positionings are not superior or inferior in themselves. China has always upheld the principle that all countries, big or small, should respect each other and receive equal treatment. China’s positioning of its partnerships with foreign countries and organizations has never been constrained by factors such as ideology, political system, geographical distance, or economic level. China’s partners include a wide range of developing countries as well as major Western developed countries.

中国对于伙伴关系的定位,体现的是彼此互信程度与合作水平,虽然某种程度上反映出国与国之间关系的亲疏远近,但不同定位本身并无高低贵贱之分。中国一贯秉持大小国家都要相互尊重、一律平等。中国对外伙伴关系的定位中,从来都不是以意识形态、政治体制、地理远近和经济水平等因素划线,中国的伙伴包括广大发展中国家,也涵盖西方主要发达国家 

Looking around the world today, although peace, development, and cooperation are still the trend of the times, some Western countries are stuck to the Cold War mentality and base themselves on considerations of great power competition and confrontation between camps. Their foreign relations are full of ideological and geopolitical considerations, and they have mixed feelings about building partnerships with China. Affected by this, China’s positioning of its “partnerships” with individual countries such as the United States and Japan has also regressed. Although the word “partner” is not found in the current positioning of the relationship between China and the United States as a “new type of major power relations” or the “strategic mutually beneficial relationship” between China and Japan, this does not impact the great importance China attaches to Sino-U.S. and Sino-Japanese relations. China is committed to developing Sino-U.S. relations that feature “no conflict, no confrontation, mutual respect, and mutually beneficial cooperation” and promotes the practice of a political consensus of “cooperative partners rather than threats to one another” on the part of China and Japan. This fully reflects China’s sincere willingness to develop partnerships with the United States and Japan.

环顾当今世界,尽管和平、发展和合作仍然是时代潮流,但一些西方国家固守冷战思维,从大国竞争和阵营对抗出发,对外关系中充斥着意识形态和地缘政治的考量,对于同中国构建伙伴关系显得三心二意。受此影响,中国同美国、日本等个别国家的伙伴关系定位也出现过倒退。尽管当前中美新型大国关系中日战略互惠关系的定位中没有伙伴字样,但这并不影响中方对中美、中日关系的高度重视。中国致力于发展不冲突不对抗,相互尊重、合作共赢的中美关系,推动中日两国践行互为合作伙伴、互不构成威胁的政治共识,充分体现了中国同美日发展伙伴关系的真诚意愿 

It should be pointed out that international relations are never static, and any bilateral relationship is dynamically evolving. China has not yet established partnerships with some countries, but this also indicates areas with greater development potential. Continuously expanding and deepening its global partnerships is an inevitable requirement for China in promoting the construction of a community with a shared future for mankind and a new type of international relations. It is also an important assurance for promoting the implementation of the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, and the Global Civilization Initiative. China’s diplomatic thinking of “partnerships, not alliances” aligns with the trend of the times and conforms to the general trend of history. As China’s global partnership network becomes denser and denser, the path of major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics becomes broader and broader.

需要指出的是,国际关系从来都非一成不变,任何双边关系都在动态演变之中,中国同一些国家还没有建立伙伴关系,也预示着更大发展潜力。不断扩大深化全球伙伴关系,是中国推动构建人类命运共同体和新型国际关系的必然要求,也是推动落实全球发展倡议、全球安全倡议和全球文明倡议的重要保障。中国结伴不结盟外交思想符合时代潮流,顺应历史大势。随着中国全球伙伴关系网络越织越密,中国特色大国外交之路也将越走越宽 

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项昊宇 (Xiang Haoyu). "What “Partnerships” Does China Have? [中国的“伙伴”关系有哪些?]". CSIS Interpret: China, original work published in Study Times [学习时报], October 20, 2023

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